Bertolt Brecht: Exile and Struggle During World War II

Bertolt Brecht (1898–1956) was one of the most significant playwrights and poets of the 20th century. A staunch critic of fascism and capitalism, his career was deeply shaped by the political upheavals of his time. While he is widely known for his theatrical innovations and Marxist-inspired critiques, his years in exile during and after World War II played a crucial role in shaping both his personal and professional trajectory. Forced to flee Germany after the rise of the Nazi regime, Brecht's exile took him across Europe before settling in the United States, where he encountered both opportunities and hostility.

His exile was more than a geographical displacement - it was a emotional and psychological journey of survival, resistance and artistic resilience. Forced separation from his homeland was not merely a political consequence, but a deeply personal trauma that cut to the core of his identity as a writer, a German and a political thinker and which would reshape his work and worldview.

Early Exile and the Struggle Against Fascism

Brecht left Germany in February 1933, shortly after Hitler’s rise to power carrying with him a suitcase of belongings and the weight of loss and uncertainty. His works, which had been increasingly critical of the Weimar Republic and openly opposed to the Nazi ideology, were among the many books burned by the regime in May of that year. Though never a member of the Communist Party, he had begun studying Marxism in the late 1920s and incorporated its principles into his plays and writings. This ideological alignment made him a target for the Nazis.

His first destination was Scandinavia where Brecht experienced the isolation as a political refugee. He initially sought refuge in Denmark, staying with writer Karin Michaëlis before acquiring a home in Svendborg. From 1933 to 1939, he co-edited the anti-Nazi magazine Das Wort and continued writing plays, including Fear and Misery of the Third Reich, which directly addressed the oppressive atmosphere of Nazi Germany. During this period, Brecht also spent time in the Soviet Union, engaging with other exiled intellectuals and observing the socialist system firsthand. The safety of Denmark and later Sweden was a fragile and temporary reprieve from the gathering storm of fascism. As war became imminent, he moved briefly to Stockholm in 1939 and then to Helsinki in 1940, where he awaited a visa to the United States.

Brecht in America: Collaboration and Conflict

In May 1941, Brecht arrived in the United States, settling in Santa Monica, California, among a thriving expatriate community of European intellectuals. Despite the rich cultural scene, Brecht found Hollywood an uneasy fit, its superficial glamour, felt like a cruel mockery of his serious artistic and political intentions. He became part of the German-speaking émigré community in Los Angeles, where he soon found himself classified as an "Enemy Alien" due to his political leanings and German origins. He had hoped to make a living as a screenwriter but had limited success - a stark reminder of his status as an outsider.

Although the colony of exiles included prominent figures such as Heinrich and Thomas Mann, Lion Feuchtwanger, Anna Seghers, Oskar Maria Graf and Joseph Roth, Brecht's time in the USA was marked by a sense of isolation and struggle. His exile experience was reflected in his writing, through diary entries, correspondence and poetry, in which he explored the precarious existence of exiled intellectuals. Deprived of many traditional publishing outlets and cut off from his audience, Brecht relied on a shrinking network of publishing contacts, a situation that had already begun to deteriorate in the late 1930s. His poetry of exile reflects not only a sense of personal displacement but also a broader attempt to forge a collective identity among the exiles, evoking the spirit of Heinrich Mann's vision of a "people's front" against fascism.

Despite these hardships, Brecht found some opportunities in Hollywood. His most notable contribution was co-writing the screenplay for Hangmen Also Die! (1943), a film loosely based on the assassination of Nazi official Reinhard Heydrich. The film, directed by Fritz Lang with music by Hanns Eisler, remains Brecht’s only produced Hollywood screenplay. However, his efforts to establish himself in the film industry were largely unsuccessful.

During his time in the U.S., Brecht wrote some of his most famous works, including Mother Courage and Her Children (1941), The Good Person of Szechwan (1943), The Caucasian Chalk Circle (1944), and The Resistible Rise of Arturo Ui (1941), which satirized Hitler’s rise to power. His engagement with Marxist thought remained strong, and his plays continued to reflect his critique of fascism and capitalism.

However, his political views put him under increasing scrutiny. By the mid-1940s, as the Cold War intensified, Brecht became a target of the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), which sought to expose and blacklist suspected Communist sympathizers in Hollywood. In 1947, Brecht was subpoenaed to testify before HUAC. Though he denied ever being a member of the Communist Party and answered questions with strategic evasiveness, the experience reinforced his belief that America was not a safe place for him.

Return to Europe and Lasting Impact

The day after his HUAC testimony, Brecht left the United States, first moving to Switzerland before eventually settling in East Berlin in 1949. In Berlin, he established the Berliner Ensemble, a theatre company dedicated to his concept of epic theatre. Though his American exile had been marked by political persecution and artistic frustration, it also reinforced his ideological convictions and shaped the works he would produce in his final years.

Brecht’s exile experience is a crucial chapter in his life, not only for the plays and political ideas it fostered but also for the personal challenges it entailed. His displacement reflected the broader struggles of intellectuals and artists under oppressive regimes, yet he continued to produce work that critiqued those very systems. His confrontation with American anti-Communist hysteria paralleled his earlier battles with European fascism, underscoring the persistent ideological conflicts of the 20th century. Despite these hardships, Brecht’s impact on theatre, literature, and political thought remains profound, with his works still widely studied and performed today.